Did the Rabbis invent Rosh Hashanah?
There is no Biblical holiday called “Rosh Hashanah.” The “the seventh month on the first day” appears twice (Lev. 23:24; Num. 29:1) but more is concealed than revealed. The day is indeed called “the day of T’rua-blasts” but nothing is said about the type of blast. Is it a panicked cry, a shout of joy or summons to move the camp in the desert? Even the instrument to be blown, a trumpet or a shofar, is not specified.
Without any introduction, Mishnah Rosh Hashanah (1:1) begins with not one Rosh Hashanah but rather with four – in Nisan, Elul, Tishri and Shvat – all of them with administrative and financial significance. Then, in the very next paragraph we read:
At four set times the world is judged: On Pesah in respect to the produce. On Shavuot in respect to the fruit of the tree. On Rosh Hashanah all the people of the world pass before Him like a division of soldiers [more traditionally, “sheep”]…. And on Sukkot they are judged in respect of rain. (Mishnah Rosh Hashanah 1:2; trans: R. Joshua Kulp on Sefaria)
Three new year days have disappeared and the significance of the one remaining has changed from an internal Jewish matter to the day of judgment for the entire world. But the rabbis did not actually invent a new holiday; rather they brought to the surface a meaning that had been submerged. The key to opening this understanding is the verse that the shofar blower declares before reciting the blessing: “God ascends midst acclamation; the Eternal, to the blasts of the shofar (Psalm 47:6).” The verse is intended to direct our intention to a primary meaning of the shofar blowing on Rosh Hashanah: recognition of divine sovereignty.
The language of this verse and of Psalm 47 in its entirety (which the congregation reads shortly before the shofar blower’s declaration) is reminiscent of human coronations in the Bible and the ritual re-enthronements of Canaanite gods that were practiced by neighboring peoples. The parallels are so strong that scholars in the late 19th and early 20th century believed that similar annual ceremonies had also been conducted in Israel. However, the lack of any collaborating evidence tipped the scales and the current research conclusion is that such ceremonies were not held in Israel during biblical times. However, this scholarly conclusion does not contradict the societal and human need to confirm God’s sovereignty. Therefore, a “Yom T’rua” was established and coronation-style psalms were written using the poetic language that was familiar at the time.
Psalm 47 also reflects the integration of a Jewish holiday with a universal perspective. The people of Israel are the speaker in the Psalm and they invite all of the peoples to join them: “All you peoples, clap your hands, raise a joyous shout for God. For the Eternal Most High is awesome, great ruler over all the earth (verses 2-3[1]).” This display of unity is reminiscent of prophecies regarding the end of days, such as “On that day the Eternal shall be One, and God’s Name shall be one” (Zecharia 14:9; my translation).
It's no coincidence that I quoted the verse that concludes the Aleinu prayer, which was written in the 8th or 9th century as an introduction to Malchuyot, the sovereignty section of the Rosh Hashanah musaf service. Psalm 47 and Aleinu each present both a universal vision of divine sovereignty and a particularistic conception that highlights the uniqueness of the Jewish people who “God did not make like the other nations” (Aleinu) but “chose an inheritance for us” (Psalm 47:5).
On the judgment day for all peoples, after the horrendous year we've experienced, I will leave judgement of the nations to God and turn our gaze inward. How do we see ourselves in light of the sources that grant the Jewish people special status? Even if we don't all accept this idea, we can't deny that it is present in the sources and in Israeli society, and consequently influences our life. Therefore, it is deserving of our attention.
Note, the Torah does not mention any special trait of Abraham, Sarah or their descendants that makes us worthy of divine election. Quite the contrary. Deuteronomy 7:7 makes it clear, “It is not because you are the most numerous of peoples that the Eternal grew attached to you and chose you.”[2] God’s choice is the result of grace, not merit. Furthermore, God is steadfast and “keeps this covenant faithfully to the thousandth generation” (v. 9). The covenant is guaranteed; the schedule is not.
My teacher Rabbi Shai Held summarizes the situation thus: God’s love is unconditional but does come with expectations. It not preclude disappointment.[3] Rabbi Held frequently quotes the prophet Hosea who prophesied at a time when God was deeply disappointed with Israel and considered destroying them but recants: “I have had a change of heart, all My tenderness is stirred. I will not act on My wrath, will not turn to destroy Ephraim. For I am God—not human…” (11:8-9). “Part of what makes God God and not a human being is the fact that God cannot, will not, give up on God’s children no matter what” (Judaism Is About Love, p. 104).
To clarify some of the expectations, I now turn to Rabbi Yuval Cherlow’s book, The Ways of God are Straight (in Hebrew) in which in which he discusses, among other things, behavior during wartime, even in justified, defensive war.
At the outset, Rabbi Cherlow establishes that the Torah recognizes the existence of independent, evolving human morality. It is “a great privilege to be a partner in this progress” (p. 207[4]), which includes striving for a situation in which nations do not resort to war in order to solve their problems. That day has not yet arrived. Progress is indeed gradual, with ups and downs, but the direction is clear. Rabbi Cherlow emphasizes that we must not behave according to a simplistic reading of the written Torah, but rather understand its deeper message and apply it in a manner appropriate to our times. As an example, he concludes a detailed review of the section in Deuteronomy 21:10-14 concerning female prisoners of war by stating, “In its day, this commandment was the peak of morality... Today, it means that we are to rise above the nations' standards of what is acceptable in war, and strive for the highest moral heights” (p. 194-5).
I am not here to teach a lesson in the laws of war – and even more so in a war against an enemy that ignores these laws. However, I am arguing that we ought to exceed international standards, especially in situations that are not life-threatening. When there are exceptions – such as those in Sde Teiman Prison and Givat Ronen – it is also important how we as a public respond to them: do we justify them or disavow them? With all my heart I hope such events are indeed rare. If not, I am very fearful for our existence here.
Earlier, I spoke about of Rosh Hashanah as the day when we reconfirm Divine Sovereignty. Rabbi Cherlow speaks in terms of Kiddush Hashem-sanctifying God’s name, “Observing the principles of war ethics is an inseparable part of the sanctification of God’s Great Name, which is the basis of the entire Torah...” (p. 206). Writing before October 7, Rabbi Cherlow expresses hope that “the constant reality of an existential war in which we ourselves find ourselves, and the limitations we impose on ourselves by virtue of this moral concept, might be a guide to the world.”
I do not doubt that our situation now is more complicated than it was when those lines were written, but difficulty, even trauma, does not absolve us of the obligation to strive for exceptional morality. Even if we don't always succeed, it is important to keep trying.
In Psalm 47, we call upon the nations to join us and recognize “God reigns over the nations” (v. 9). With all due respect to the power of words, sometimes action speak more loudly. When we know how to set a moral example, despite all the difficulties, the great shofar blast of our freedom and the redemption of the entire world will be heard.
Shoshana Michael-Zucker, Hod veHadar
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[1] All Biblical translations modified from the Revised JPS translation (2023) on Sefaria, unless noted.
[2] For a detailed analysis of this idea in Deuteronomy, see Jon D. Levenson, The Love of God: Divine Gift, Human Gratitude, and Mutual Faithfulness in Judaism, p. 38ff.
[3] Summary from my notes. For the full idea, see Shai Held, Judaism Is About Love: Recovering the Heart of Jewish Life.
[4] All translation from Rabbi Cherlow are my own.
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